London millennium bridge Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

London millennium bridge - Essay Example London Millennium Bridge London Millennium Bridge links the city of London with the Bankside. It’s 330m steel bridge over the river Thames and is 330m long. It’s the first bridge that was built across the Thames River in London since the opening of the Tower Bridge (1894). Another special feature about the bridge is that is the first pedestrian only bridge. The city is linked near the St Paul's Cathedral with the Tate Modern art gallery on the Bankside. The bridge officially opened on 10th June 2000 and was immediately closed after being open for 2 days as it swayed alarmingly. The movement was not expected to be so great and this led to a lot of criticism of the project. The extensive research took place on the design and the bridge was reopened again after modifications to the original design on 22 February 2002. Since, then it has not had any troubles and today is one of the major attractions of London attracting thousands of pedestrians and tourists every day. The M illennium Bridge is a simple concept which has been given shape via an extensive and complex design. Findings of the Review The review views the Bridge in 2 phases. First phase is before the reopening of the bridge in 2002 (after numerous modifications were made) and the second is after the reopening immediately after the opening and the 2 years that it was closed. The review terms the first phase as a complete failure due to the following reasons: It did not meet the criteria of a successful project It was not completed on time It overshot the initial budget The final product was not of the best quality and had to be redesigned Extra funds had to be raised in order to do the modifications The review terms the second phase as a success due to the following reasons: There is no wobbling and meets all the technical requirements It leaved up to the expectations It has contributed and generated revenue through tourism It has created jobs as it has opened up new business opportunities in the surrounding area Response to the Review Even though the findings of the review are accurate and based on quality research, it does not take into consideration all the factors into consideration before terming it as an initial failure. Yes the fact that the engineers failed to come up with a design that could have predicted the wobbling and make necessary modification cannot be ignored. But this kind pedestrian effect on the bridge was unpredictable. As there hadn’t been any previous recordings that had caused such major effects (Zasky, 2011). Also there are numerous other factors that need to be considered. Prior to this, there hadn’t been much literature on the lateral vibration of a bridge. Even though there were numerous instances where lateral vibration was observed, it was not given much attention and hence was not incorporated into bridge building codes (Newland, n.d.). Examples of other bridges that have registered lateral vibration are Auckland Harbour Roa d Bridge, Groves Suspension Bridge and Birmingham NEC Link Bridge. The research that has gone into finding a solution for the problem has lead to new literature on the topic and this will be used as benchmark for all the future projects. As mentioned above numerous other bridges, which are different in design and technology to that of London Millennium Bridge, that have vibrated due to the load of the crowd have come to light (Newland, 2003). Project manager of the Bridge said, â€Å"

Effect of Microsofts Monopolistic Approach

Effect of Microsofts Monopolistic Approach The Effect of Microsofts Monopolistic Approach to Software Bundling on Innovation and Competition.   Contents (Jump to) Chapter 1 Introduction Chapter 2 – Literature Review 2.1 Monopolist or Fierce Competitor 2.2 Bundling, Innovative or Stifling Competition 2.2.1   Bundling Examples in Other Industries 2.3 The Case Against Microsoft Chapter 3 – Analysis 3.1 Bundling, Competitive or Market Restrictive? 3.2 Strategies to Gain Market Share 3.3 Microsoft and The European Union Chapter 4 – Conclusion Bibliography Chapter 1 Introduction When mentioning Microsoft, one’s thoughts naturally turn to computers, as the two are inexorably tied together. And while they both need each other, software was the latter development in this marriage of needs. Based upon digits, computers utilize this foundation as the basis for their computations (Berdayes, 2000, p. 76). A digit is a â€Å"†¦ numeral †¦ that represents an integer †¦Ã¢â‚¬  and includes †¦ any one of the decimal characters ‘0’ through ‘9’ †¦Ã¢â‚¬  as well as â€Å"†¦ either of the binary characters ‘0’ or ‘1’ †¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Atis, 2005). Computers utilize digits under the ‘base-2 number system’, which is also termed as the ‘binary number system’ (Berdayes, 2000, p. 3). The base-2 system is utilized in computers as it implements easier with present day technology. A base-10 system could be used, however its cost in terms of technology innovation woul d make computers prohibitively expensive (Berdayes, 2000, pp. 53-56). Via the utilization of binary digits as opposed to decimal digits, bits thus have only two values, ‘0 and 1’ (Barfield and Caudell, 2001, p. 344, 368). The preceding is important in understanding the relationship of numbers to computers as well as Microsoft’s later entrance into this world. The following provides a visual understanding of how this works: Table 1 – Decimal Numbers in the Binary System (Swarthmore University, 2005) Decimal Number Binary Number 0 = 0 1 = 1 2 = 10 3 = 11 4 = 100 5 = 101 6 = 110 7 = 111 8 = 1000 9 = 1001 10 = 1010 11 = 1011 12 = 1100 13 = 1101 14 = 1110 In computers, bits are utilized in conjunction with bytes, which are represented as ‘8-bit bytes’ that work as follows: Table 2 – 8 Bit Bytes (Barfield and Caudell, 2001. pp. 50-54) Decimal Number Bytes 0 = 0000000000000000 1 = 0000000000000001 2 = 0000000000000010 65534 = 1111111111111110 65535 = 1111111111111111 The earliest computer has been traced back to the ‘abax’, which is the Greek word that describes ‘calculating board’ as well as ‘calculating table’ which as invented in China and called the abacus, it was also used in ancient Greece, the Roman Empire, Russia, Japan, and is still in use by the blind (qi-journal.com, 2005). Operating much as the bits and bytes in the modern computer, the abacus has a vertical row of beads that represent multiples of 10, 1, 10, 100, 1,00 and so forth (qi-journal.com, 2005). The basic principle of the abacus operates in much the same manner as the modern computer, through numerical representation. The first generations of modern computers were huge in comparison with today’s small, powerful and fast machines, and needed air-conditioned rooms to dissipate the heat. Programming on the first commercial computer in 1951, the UNIVAC, was a group of related mechanisms driven my mathematical equations that had to be written in order for the UNIVAC to work on problems (hagar.up.ac.za, 2006). It would take another 6 years for the first personal computer to be developed, the IBM 610 Auto-Point, which was termed as a ‘personal computer’ because it only took one individual to operate it, however, the cost in 1957 termed at $55,000 translates in to well over $100,000 in today’s value (maximon.com, 2006). In 1975 saw the introduction of the Altair 8800, which sold for $439, with 256 bytes of RAM, which also represented the year that Bill Gates, along with Paul Allen founded Microsoft (maximon.com, 2006). Altair was seeking a computer language, which Gates and Allen delivered via a program called BASIC on 23 July 1975, which they gave the company â€Å"†¦ exclusive worldwide rights to †¦ for 10 years† (Rich, 2003, p. 34). Sold as an add-on with the Altair 8800 for $75, the preceding provided the revenue underpinnings for Microsoft (Rich, 2003, p. 35). Generating just $381,715 in 1977, Microsoft was upstaged by Apple Computers that made machines as well as their own operating system (Rich, 2003, p. 36). Apple’s success caught the attention of IBM, which was not in the personal computer market, the foregoing was the means via which Gates entered the picture with IBM based upon DOS, program it secured from Seattle Computer for just $50,000 that heralded the beginni ngs of the industry giant (Rich, 2003, p. 51). Microsoft MS-DOS represented the foundation for the beginning financial strength of the company, which would enable it to develop Windows 95 and successive versions leading to Vista in 2007. Along the way, Microsoft has been accused, rightly or wrongly, of a monopolistic approach to software bundling that has stifled competition and innovation. This paper will seek to examine this facet, its effects, how it happened and the ramifications of the statement. Chapter 2 – Literature Review 2.1 Monopolist or Fierce Competitor In â€Å"Trust on Trial: How the Microsoft Case is Reframing the Rules of Competition†, by Richard McKenzie (2000, p. 1), reflects that Microsoft in the last 25 years has become â€Å"†¦ the worlds premier software company, dominating many of the markets it has entered and developed†¦Ã¢â‚¬  and also finds itself â€Å"†¦under legal assault †¦Ã¢â‚¬  for monopolist behaviour. McKenzie (2000, p. 2) indicates that in the United States â€Å"†¦its the Justice Department against Microsoft, but behind the courtroom scenes there has been a good deal of political maneuvering by other major American corporate high-tech combatants -Sun Microsystems, Oracle, Netscape, IBM, and America Online, to name just a few who would like nothing better than to see their market rival, Microsoft, get its comeuppance in the court of law†. In this instance it is the â€Å"†¦efficacy of antitrust law enforcement has been on trial† as the Microsoft case repr esents â€Å"†¦the first large-scale antitrust proceedings of the digital age;† (McKenzie, 2000. p. 2). McKenzie (2000, p. x) reflects upon the government case against Microsoft as a monopolist, indicating that while its operating system comes â€Å" †¦ preloaded on at least nine of every ten computers containing Intel microprocessors sold in the country, if not the world† was it this that made the company a monopolist? The market dominance that Microsoft has in the fact that its operating system comes preloaded in over 90% of the computers sold was expressed by the former United States Republican candidate Robert Dole, who stated â€Å"Microsoft’s goal appears to be to extend the monopoly it has enjoyed in the PC operating system marketplace to the Internet as a whole, and to control the direction of innovation. (McKenzie, 2000, p. 28). This view was also repeated by the media as well as New York Attorney General Dennis Vacco who see Microsoft’s â€Å"†¦product development strategies are evidence of monopoly power: †¦Ã¢â‚¬  in that the â€Å" †¦ Windows operating system has become almost the sole entry point to cyberspace† (McKenzie, 2000, p. 29). It is without question that Microsoft’s dominance resulting from preloaded operating software provides it with an advantage in introducing other forms of software. But, is that simply good business practices o r predatory behaviour? For consideration, McKenzie (2000, p. 47) points to the book written by Judge Bork â€Å"The Antitrust Paradox† where he stated repeatedly †¦ antitrust should not interfere with any firm size created by internal growth †¦. And like it or not, that is how Microsoft got into the position it now enjoys. But, in all the rhetoric, there is another facet to Microsoft’s dominance, the PC manufacturers themselves. As stated by the manufacturers themselves, there simply is no other choice! (McKenzie, 2000, p. 29). Eric Browning, the chief executive of PC manufacturer Micron has said I am not aware of any other non-Microsoft operating system product to which Micron could or would turn as a substitute for Windows 95 at this time† (McKenzie, 2000, p. 30). This sentiment was also echoed by John Romano, an executive at Hewlett-Packard who advised †¦ we dont have a choice †¦ (McKenzie, 2000, p. 30). The tie-in between monopoly power and market dominance has been explained by Franklin Fisher, the chief economist for the Justice Department as Monopoly power is a substantial degree of market power, or the ability of a firm (a) to charge a price significantly in excess of competitive levels and (b) to do so over a significant period of time (McKenzie, 2000, p. 30). Fisher further asserts that Microsoft’s dominance in the market â€Å"†¦ is protected by barriers to entry in the form of economies of scale in production, network effects, and switching costs †¦ (McKenzie, 2 000, p. 30). Fisher adds that â€Å"There are no reasonable substitutes for Microsoft’s Windows operating system for Intel-compatible desktop PCs. Operating systems for non-Intel-compatible computers are not a reasonable substitute for Microsoft’s Windows operating system because there would be high costs to switching to non-Intel-compatible computers like Mac and Unix† (McKenzie, 2000, p. 30). However, the monopolistic tendencies of Microsoft have not resulted in the company charging higher prices as a result of its dominant position. This view was put forth by the chief economic consultant for the state attorneys general in that â€Å"†¦the absence of viable competitors in Intel-compatible operating systems means that Microsoft doesnt have to worry about raising its price or using its economic weight in other ways †¦Ã¢â‚¬  (McKenzie, 2000, p. 30). He asserts that â€Å" †¦ a monopolist would continue to raise its price so long as its profits rose. †¦Ã¢â‚¬  (McKenzie, 2000, p. 31). Something that Microsoft has not done. Such is inconsistent with the manner in which monopolists behave. The line of reasoning for the preceding is that â€Å"†¦the cost of the operating system represents on average 2.5 percent of the price of personal computers (and at most 10 percent for very inexpensive personal computers), so even a 10 percent increase in the pr ice of the OS [operating system] would result at most in a 1 percent increase in the price of even inexpensive PCs †¦Ã¢â‚¬  (McKenzie, 2000, p. 31). Warren-Boulton thus concludes â€Å"†¦that Microsofts price for Windows is very likely far below the monopoly price †¦Ã¢â‚¬  which is a result of â€Å"†¦the so-called coefficient of the price elasticity of demand facing any firm (the ratio of the percentage change in the quantity to the percentage change in the price †¦Ã¢â‚¬  (McKenzie, 2000, p. 31). Therefore, argues McKenzie (2000, p. 32) a monopolist would not price its product in the very low range, â€Å"†¦because a very low elasticity implies that a price increase will increase profits †¦Ã¢â‚¬ , thus the government’s case has opposing views of Microsoft’s monopolist position, a telling facet in considering the overall implications of the company. The foregoing direct contradicts Franklin Fisher’s, the chief economist for the Justice Department, claims that Microsoft earns â€Å" †¦ superhigh profits †¦Ã¢â‚¬ , which its low prices does not support (McKenzie, 2000, p. 32). Thus, in being a so-called monopolist, Microsoft’s pricing policies do not reflect the behaviour of one. The complicated market, competitive, product and business realities of Microsoft in a competitive market must also be viewed as the company taking actions to protect its position through new product introductions as well as making it difficult for compe titors to gain an edge, the manner in which all firms operate if they intend to remain in business and continue as market leaders. The fact that Microsoft provides its Internet browser free along with its operating system, serves the interest of customers in that they have this feature already available in the purchase of their computers. It also represents a competitive action that limits other browsers from gaining an edge in the market. McKenzie (2000, p. 32) aptly points our that â€Å" †¦ Any firm that is dominant in a software market isnt likely to want to give up its dominance, especially if there are substantial economies of scale in production and network effects in demand †¦Ã¢â‚¬ , something with both Fisher as well as Warren-Boulton indicate is true in the software industry. McKenzie (2000, p. 32) adds that if Microsoft where to start losing market share for its operating system â€Å"†¦it could anticipate problems in keeping its applications network intact, which could mean its market share could spiral downward as a new market entrant makes sales and those sales lead to more and more applications being written for the new operating system †¦Ã¢â‚¬ . The flaw in the monopolist argue, as pointed out by McKenzie (2000. p. 34) is that even if a company had a 100% share of the market â€Å"†¦it must price and develop its product as though it actually had market rivals because the fi rm has to fear the entry of potential competitors †¦Ã¢â‚¬ . To make his point, McKenzie (2000, p. 34) points to classic microeconomics textbooks that teach that a monopolist represents a ‘single producer’ â€Å"†¦that is capable of restricting output, raising its prices above competitive levels, and imposing its will on buyers †¦Ã¢â‚¬  therefore in the position of the U.S. Justice Department, Microsoft’s high, 90%, market share is a near or almost monopoly, that McKenzie (2000, p. 34) aptly states is like almost being pregnant, you either are or you aren’t. To illustrate his point, McKenzie (2000, p. 34) points to the company called Signature Software, which at the time had â€Å"†¦100 percent of the market for a program that allows computer users to type their letters and e-mails in a font that is derived from their own handwriting†. He adds that despite it being the singular producer in the market, the company â€Å"†¦prices its software very modestly, simply because the program can be duplicated with relative ease.† McKenzie (2000, p. 34) also points out that Netscape at one time almost completely dominated the browser market, yet did not price its advantage in monopolist fashion. In protecting its position, Microsoft developed and introduced new products, all of which any other firm had the opportunity to do and thus innovate, yet such did not happen. McKenzie (2000, p. 137) asserts that the aggressive development of new products by Microsoft was in defense of its market position as well as being good marketi ng and customer satisfaction practices. He points to the following innovations by Microsoft that helped to cement is market dominance and stave off competitive inroads, all of which could have been created by other firms (McKenzie, 2000, p. 137): 1975 Microsoft develops BASIC as the first programming language written for the PC. A feat that could have been accomplished by anther firm had they innovated and gotten the initial contract with Altair for the 8800. 1983 Microsoft developed the first mouse based PC word processing program, Word. 1985 The company develops the first PC based word processing system to support the use of a laser printer. 1987 Microsoft’s Windows/386 became the first operating system to utilize the new Intel 32-bit 80386 processor. 1987 Microsoft’s introduces Excel, the first spreadsheet that was designed for Windows. 1989 Word became the first word processing system to offer tables. 1989 Microsoft Office becomes the first business productivity application offering a full suite of office tools. 1991 Word becomes the first productivity program to incorporate multimedia into its operation. 1991 Word version 2.0 becomes the first word processing program to provide drag and drop capability. 1995 Internet Explorer becomes the first browser to support multimedia and 3D graphics 1996 Microsoft’s Intellimouse is the first pointing device to utilize a wheel to aid in navigation. 1996 Microsoft introduces Picture It, the first program to permit consumers to create, enhance and share photo quality images over their PC’s. 1997 DirectX becomes the first multimedia architecture to integrate Internet ready services. 1998 Microsoft’s WebTV in conjunction with the hit television show Baywatch becomes the first internationally syndicated Internet-enhanced season finale. 1999 Windows 2000, which later becomes Windows NT adds the following innovations as firsts to a PC operating system, Text to speech engine, Multicast protocol algorithms that are reliable, Improvements in the performance registry, Inclusion of DirectX, Vision based user interfaces, Handwriting recognition, and a number of other innovations to enhance its operating system, and maintain as well as increase its market position. The preceding represents examples of innovation spurred by Microsoft that could have been introduced by its competitors in various fields first, but where not. Thus, Microsoft in these instances, as well as others introduce consumer enhancing innovations to further its market dominance through aggressive new product development, a path that was open to others as well. 2.2 Bundling, Innovative or Stifling Competition Rosenbaum’s (1998) book â€Å"Market Dominance: How Firms Gain, Hold, or Lose it and the impact on Economic Performance† provides a perspective on the means via which companies gain as well as lose market share, and the tactics they employ to best their competition. Few people remember that when Microsoft introduced Microsoft Word and Excel, the dominant software programs for word processing and spreadsheets were Lotus 1-2-3- and WordPerfect (Rosenbaum, 1998, p. 168). In fact, WordPerfect was the application found in all businesses, period (Rosenbaum, 1998, p. 168). Each of the preceding applications cost approximately $300, which Microsoft bested by selling his Office Suite program for $250. Through providing limited use Word programs in Windows, consumer had the chance to test Word before buying it (Rosenbaum, 1998, p. 168). More importantly, Microsoft’s spreadsheet, word processing, presentation programs were simply better and easier to use that the competitio n. By innovatively offering a free limited version of Word with the operating system, Microsoft induced trial, to which it had to follow up on with a better product. In looking at competitive practices and competition analysis, there is a relationship that exists between the structure of the market and innovation, to which Hope (2000, p. 35) poses the question as to â€Å"†¦whether monopoly is more conducive to innovation than competition †¦Ã¢â‚¬ . Hope (29000, p. 35) indicates that in response to the foregoing, there is no â€Å"†¦clear-cut answer, probably because there is none †¦Ã¢â‚¬ . Hope (2000, p. 35 puts forth the theory that â€Å"†¦Most economists, and virtually all designers of competition policy, take market structure as their starting point as something which is somehow, almost exogenously, given (although it may be affected by competition policy), and which produces results in terms of costs, prices, innovations, etc †¦Ã¢â‚¬  However, Hope (2000, p. 35) tells us that this is wrong, based upon elementary microeconomics, as â€Å"†¦Market structure is inherently endogenous†¦ (and is) â⠂¬ ¦ determined by the behaviour of existing firms and by entry of new ones, simultaneously with costs, prices, product ranges, and investments in RD and marketing†. Exogenous variables, if they in fact exist in a particular situation, represent facets such as product fundamentals such as â€Å"†¦production processes, entry conditions, the initial preferences of the consumers, variables determined in other markets, and government policy †¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Hope, 2000, p. 35). As a result, Hope (2000, p. 35) advises that the questions as to whether â€Å"†¦there will be more innovation with monopoly than with competition is no more meaningful than to ask whether price-cost margins will be higher if costs are high than if they are low †¦Ã¢â‚¬ . 2.2.1 Bundling Examples in Other Industries Aron and Wildman (1999, p. 2) make the analogy of Microsoft’s bundling methodology with that of cable television whereby a broadcaster how owns a â€Å"†¦ marquee channel can preclude competition in thematic channels (such as comedy or science fiction channels) by bundling their own thematic channels with the †¦Ã¢â‚¬  marquee channel. The preceding illustrates the idea that consumers tend to value channels such as HBO, Cinemax and Showtime that their reputation helps to cause consumers to consider other program platforms they offer. These channels advertise their other channels on their marquee stations and vise versa, offering bundling of channels at reduced prices to encourage purchase. Aron and Wildman (1999, p. 2) offer the logic that â€Å"†¦a provider that attempts to compete by offering a thematic channel on a stand-alone basis, without an anchor channel, would not be able to survive the competitive pressure of a rival with an anchor.† The argume nt that having a marquee channel, or anchor, is key to the viability of broadcasters is supported by the development of pay television in the United Kingdom. Aron and Wildman (1999, p. 2). The dominant pay television supplier is BSkyB which controls â€Å"†¦most of the critical programming rights in Britain, enabling it to use bundled pricing to execute a price squeeze against rivals †¦Ã¢â‚¬  which as in the case of Microsoft â€Å"†¦the pay television industry is that a firm that monopolizes one product (here, an anchor channel) can effectively leverage that monopoly to preclude competition in another product market by using bundled pricing† (Aron and Wildman, 1999, p. 2). Aron and Wildman (1999, p. 3) provide another example of how firms utilize bundling to inhibit their competition, through the example of Abbott and Ortho laboratories, which produce blood-screening tests utilized to test blood that is donated for viruses. Interestingly Abbott produced all five of the test utilized to check for viruses, whereas Ortho only produced three, thus Abbott bundled the five tests in a manner that Ortho was unable to compete, thus effectively making it a monopolist (Aron and Wildman (1999, p. 3). Were these good business practices that this enabled Abbott to increase its market share at the expense of another company that did not innovate in producing all five tests to complete? Ortho claimed that â€Å"†¦Abbott was effectively a monopolist in two of the tests, Ortho claimed that Abbott could and did use a bundled pricing strategy to leverage its monopoly into the other non-monopolized tests and preclude competition there† (Aron and Wildman, 1999, p. 3). The preceding examples show â€Å"†¦that a monopolist can preclude competition using a bundled pricing strategy †¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Aron and Wildman, 1999, p. 3) and that in so doing can accomplish such without charging prices in excess of what is reasonable for their customers, which makes sound business sense in that capturing the market thus eliminates the need for such, and also provides the business condition that prevents competitors from re-entering the market at lower prices. Thus it is rational for a monopolist to behave as if competitors exist, which in fact they will if it provides such an opportunity through increased pricing. The examples indicated show that â€Å" †¦ it is indeed possible in equilibrium for a provider who monopolizes one product (or set of products) to profitably execute a fatal price squeeze against a rival in another product by using a bundled pricing strategy† (Aron and Wildman, 1999, p. 3). 2.3 The Case Against Microsoft Spinello (2002, p. 83) in his work â€Å"Regulating Cyberspace: The Policies and Technologies of Control† inform us that there are four distinct aspects of the United States government case which is based upon violations of the Sherman Act, which are as follows: The company’s monopolization of the PC operating systems market was achieved via anticompetitive means, specially in the instance of the utilization of its browser, in violation of â€Å"Section 2 of the Sherman Act, which declares that it is unlawful for a person or firm to â€Å"monopolize†¦any part of the trade or commerce among the several States, or with foreign nations† (Spinello, 2002, p. 83). That Microsoft engaged in â€Å"†¦Unlawful exclusive dealing arrangements in violation of Sections 1 and 2 of the Sherman Act (this category includes Microsoft’s exclusive deal with America Online)† (Spinello, 2002, p. 83). That Microsoft in its attempt to maintain it competitive edge in browser software â€Å"†¦attempted to illegally amass monopoly power in the browser market) in violation of Section 2 of the Sherman Act †¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Spinello, 2002, p. 83). And that the bundling of its browser along with the operating system was in violation of â€Å"†¦Section 1 of the Sherman Act (Section 1 of this act prohibits contracts, combinations, and conspiracies in restraint of trade, and this includes tying arrangements) †¦Ã¢â‚¬  †¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Spinello, 2002, p. 83). Spinello (2002, p. 89) provides an analysis of the Department of Justice case against the company utilizing a distinct example as represented by Netscape. He contends that the option for consumer choice was never inhibited by Microsoft, and that Netscape’s own practices contributed to the decline in popularity of its browser. Chapter 3 –Analysis 3.1 Bundling, Competitive or Market Restrictive? The Concise Dictionary of Business Management (Statt, 1999, p. 109) defines a monopoly as â€Å"A situation in which a market is under the control or domination of a single organization †. The Dictionary continues that â€Å"This condition is generally considered to be met at one-quarter to one-third of the market in question (and that) †¦ A monopoly is contrary to the ideal of the free market and is therefore subject to legal sanctions in all industrialized countries with a capitalist or mixed economy†. In addressing this facet of the Microsoft case, McKenzie (2000, p. 27) elaborates that Microsoft’s market position as a ‘single seller’ in the market as a result of its dominance represents â€Å"†¦ latent, if not kinetic, monopoly power† and in the opinion of the judge presiding over the case, the company is â€Å"†¦illegally exploiting its market power in various ways to its own advantage and to the detriment of existing and potential market rivals and, more important, consumers†. This goes to the heart of the matter concerning the assertion that Microsoft’s monopolist approach is stifling competition and innovation as its bundling practices effectively eliminates software such as Netscape and others from becoming an option for other companies as the Internet browser Explorer comes preloaded with Windows and Vista operating software. This view was publicly asserted by the United States Attorney General at the time, Janet Reno in a 1997 press conference where she stated on behalf of the Justice Department that Microsoft is unlawfully taking advantage of its Windows monopoly to protect and extend that monopoly (McKenzie, 2000, p. 27). Gillett and Vogelsang (1999, p. xiv) in â€Å"Competition, Regulation, and Convergence: Current Trends in Telecommunications Policy Research† advise that â€Å"†¦Bundling is a contentious element of software competition that has been at the heart of the Microsoft antitrust litigation, and represents an integral aspect in the examination of how and if Microsoft’s monopolistic approach to software bundling has an effect on innovation and competition. They state that â€Å" †¦ through bundling, can profitably extend this monopoly to another product, for which it faces competition from a firm offering a superior product (in the sense that it would generate more surplus than the product offered by the monopolist) (Gillett and Vogelsang, 1999, p. xiv). They continue that â€Å"†¦Bundling the two products turns out to be an equilibrium outcome that makes society in general and consumers in particular worse off than they would be with competition without bundl ing †¦Ã¢â‚¬ . Gillett and Vogelsang (1999, p. xiv) offer the idea that â€Å"†¦bundling is likely to be welfare reducing and that unbundling would not be a suitable remedy †¦Ã¢â‚¬  Aron and Wildman (1999, p. 1) advise us that through the use of bundling a company can exclude its rivals through the combined pricing, thus successfully leveraging its monopoly power. They continue that the preceding represents part of an equilibrium strategy by which the monop

Orthopraxy In Islam Essay -- essays research papers fc

Orthopraxy in Islam   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Islamic life is centered on the physical practice of prayer (salat). With that the religion of Islam itself is based in the methodical movement through which Muslims show their devotion to Allah. The prayer begins with the devotee standing, bending slowly into a sitting position and ending in full prostration. Bowing fully onto the ground is a practice that shows humility and represents the true devotion of members. Practice-centered religion differentiates itself from â€Å"orthodox† religion in that it focuses primarily on ritual practice, rather than theology or doctrine, orthodox meaning â€Å"correct opinion†. The most visible orthodox religion of America is Christianity. Christianity centers life around the opinions of the church with less emphasis on purity and behavior. Islamic life is distinctly based on what can be defined as â€Å"orthopraxy† or the importance of religious practice. The orthopraxy of Islam can be seen in at least th ree of the Five Pillars of Islam, salat, Ramadan and the hajj, which are also representative of Muslim faith and duties.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Salat, as mentioned earlier, is the performance of prayer five times a day. The prayer, which includes full prostration, is performed facing Mecca. In the The Meaning of the Glorious Koran, (the earliest source of Islamic writing as dictated to Mohammed), it is written, â€Å"Whencesoever thou comest forth (for prayer, O Mohammed) turn thy face toward the Inviolable Place of Worship. Lo! it is the Truth from thy Lord. Allah is not unaware of what ye do (Surah 2:149).† Implicit directions for prayer also display the amount of emphasis on practice. Salat must be performed five times daily, at specific times of the day: early morning, noon, mid-afternoon, sunset, and evening. Each Friday a congregational service is held at the mosque and every male is required to attend. Before prayer, four ritual aspects are required: ritual purification, proper covering of the body, proper intention, and facing Mecca, or qibla (1). The emphasis on purity is directly associated with prayer, as one must not be impure in any way when one prays. The ritual impurity associated with everyday living is known as najasa or hadath. Najasa is external impurity including but not limited to, urine, blood, pus, feces of animals and humans. Hadath is impurity of the soul... ...ractices of The Five Pillars of Islam, the original and continually practiced rituals of Muslims. The difference also involves the lifestyle of the Christians. In most Christian sects/denominations there is no encounter with personal circumambulation, prostration or ritual covering of the body. These physical aspects of Islam truly separate it from what can be considered orthodoxy. The faith and duties of Islam are inside of the practices performed. The Islamic people practice strict physical rituals that correspond directly with their belief system. The Five Pillars of Islam exemplify the practices of Islam in that they require physical practice including worship, behavior and ritual cleanliness. The practices are followed obediently by Muslims and are seen as enhancing the relationship one has with Allah. As Dr. Denny says, â€Å"Islam†¦on the other hand, view[s] religion as a way of life and a ritual patterning of that life under God’s lordship (1).† Works Cited 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  See Frederick Denny’s book, An Introduction to Islam pages 112-136. 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Pickthall, Mohammed Marmaduke, ed. The Meaning of the Glorious Koran. Mentor, NY, NY.

Linguistics and Language Essay

The term dialect (from the ancient Greek word dialektos, â€Å"discourse†, from dia, â€Å"through† + lego, â€Å"I speak†) is used in two distinct ways, even by linguists. One usage refers to a variety of a language that is a characteristic of a particular group of the language’s speakers. The term is applied most often to regional speech patterns, but a dialect may also be defined by other factors, such as social class. [2] A dialect that is associated with a particular social class can be termed a sociolect, a dialect that is associated with a particular ethnic group can be termed as ethnolect, and a regional dialect may be termed a regiolect or topolect. The other usage refers to a language that is socially subordinate to a regional or national standard language, often historically cognate to the standard, but not a variety of it or in any other sense derived from it. Dialect: This is a complex and often misunderstood concept. For linguists, a dialect is the collection of attributes (phonetic, phonological, syntactic, morphological, and semantic) that make one group of speakers noticeably different from another group of speakers of the same language. COMMON SOURCES OF MISUNDERSTANDING: 1) DIALECT is NOT a negative term for linguists. . Often times, for example, we hear people refer to non-standard varieties of English as â€Å"dialects†, usually to say something bad about the non-standard variety (and thus about the people who speak it). This happened quite a bit during last year’s ebonics controversy. But, the term dialect refers to ANY variety of a language. Thus, by definition, we all speak a dialect of our native language. 2) DIALECT is NOT synonymous with accent. Accent is only a part of dialectal variation. Non-linguists often think accents define a dialect (or that accents alone identify people as non-native or foreign language speakers). Also, non-linguists tend to think that it’s always the â€Å"other† people that have â€Å"an accent†. So, what is â€Å"accent†? 3) ACCENT: This term refers to phonological variation, i. e.variation in pronunciation Thus, if we talk about a Southern Accent; we’re talking about a generalized property of English pronunciation in the Southern part of the US. But, Southern dialects have more than particular phonological properties. Accent is thus about pronunciation, while dialect is a broader term encompassing syntactic, morphological, and semantic properties as well. A final note on accent. WE ALL HAVE ONE! There is no such thing as a person who speaks without an accent. This is not an exercise in political correctness, by the way. It is a fact. In sum, a dialect is a particular variety of a language, and we all have a dialect. Accent refers to the phonology of a given dialect. Since we all have a dialect, we all have an accent. Idiolect: Another term that we must be familiar with is idiolect. â€Å"What’s an idiolect? † you ask, on the edge of your seat. An idiolect is simply the technical term we use to refer to the variety of language spoken by each individual speaker of the language. Just as there is variation among groups of speakers of a language, there is variation from speaker to speaker. No two speakers of a language speak identically. Each speaks her or his own particular variety of that language. Each thus speaks her or his own idiolect. Role of Dialect: Language says a lot about our identity. Americans, Australians, New Zealanders and South Africans all speak differently. When we meet somebody from a different part of the country, they may use different words, sounds or grammatical structures. A dialect is a variety of language that is characteristic of a certain area. For instance, in the Northern Cape, people refer to older people as grootmense and paper as pampier whereas in Pretoria they are called oumense and papier. If you hear colored people from Cape Town speaking Afrikaans, they sound different to Afrikaans spoken elsewhere. People from Natal speak English in different ways to people from Johannesburg etc. So often, the way we speak says a lot about where we are from, who we are and what we care about. So studying dialects is one way of validating people’s identities and ways of life. Characteristics of Dialect: There are ten characteristics of dialect. 1. Dialect can be identified by variation of grammar. 2. Dialect can be identified by variation of vocabulary. 3. Dialect can be identified by variation of prosody. 4. Dialect can be identified by variation of sentence structure. 5. Dialect can be identified by variation of figures of speech. 6. Variance of parent language by social class of speakers. 7. Variance of parent language by region inhabited by speakers. 8. Likely will not have its own written literature. 9. Likely speakers will not have state or nation of their own. 10. Likely region-specific for speakers. Difference between Dialect and Register: To describe differences we have to first understand these two terms separately. What is Dialect? A regional or social variety of a language distinguished by pronunciation, grammar, or vocabulary, especially a variety of speech differing from the standard literary language or speech pattern of the culture in which it exists: Cockney is a dialect of English. What is Register? In linguistics, a register is a variety of a language used for a particular purpose or in a particular social setting. For example, when speaking in a formal setting, an English speaker may be more likely to adhere more closely to prescribed grammar, pronounce words ending in -ing with a velar nasal instead of an alveolar nasal (e.g. â€Å"walking†, not â€Å"walkin'†), choose more formal words (e. g. father vs. dad, child vs. kid, etc. ), and refrain from using contractions such as ain’t, than when speaking in an informal setting. Now it is time to differentiate both terms. A dialect is a variety of language used by different speech communities, whereas register is a variety of language associated with people’s occupation. Register is to do with variation in language use connected with topic matter. â€Å"One’s dialect shows who (or what) he/she is, while one’s register shows what he/she is doing†. Dialect is a special form of speaking belonging to a group. Register is a linguistic term used to describe changing how one talks based on the situation. 1. Dialect: a local variety of a language*, usually understood by speakers of other dialects of the same language, often without a standardized grammar or spelling, used mostly for non-formal purposes in a local community or among people coming from the same community but living in another community than that they came from. There is often no consensus if such a local language variety is a dialect or a language. The choice is usually taken on the basis of political or conventional criteria and never on linguistic ones. 2. A speech register: a way of speaking or writing including vocabulary, syntax and pronunciation (or spelling) chosen by individuals to express themselves depending on the circumstances they speak: high register (formal occasions like parliamentary speech, official documents, celebrations), low register (informal occasions, conversations among family or friends’ group). There are also many in-between registers and specialized occasions like religious services, sport events, and so on. An individual may choose his dialect as a speech register for informal occasions, and a standardized language of a larger social unit on formal occasions (often called diglossia). Register: In linguistics, one of many styles or varieties of language determined by such factors as social occasion, purpose, and audience, also called stylistic variation. More generally, register is used to indicate degrees of formality in language use. The different registers or language styles that we use are sometimes called codes. According to a linguist Robert MacNeil (1989) the example of Register is; â€Å"It fascinates me how differently we all speak in different circumstances. We have levels of formality, as in our clothing. There are very formal occasions, often requiring written English: the job application or the letter to the editor–the dark-suit, serious-tie language, with everything pressed and the lint brushed off. There is our less formal out-in-the-world language–a more comfortable suit, but still respectable. There is language for close friends in the evenings, on weekends–blue-jeans-and-sweat-shirt language, when it’s good to get the tie off. There is family language, even more relaxed, full of grammatical short cuts, family slang, echoes of old jokes that have become intimate shorthand–the language of pajamas and uncombed hair. Finally, there is the language with no clothes on; the talk of couples–murmurs, sighs, grunts–language at its least self-conscious, open, vulnerable, and primitive. † Role of Register: Its chief importance is social. It signals the kind of interaction the speaker wants, or acceptance/no acceptance of the kind of interaction expected in any situation. For instance, level of formality is a major aspect of English register. Highly formal register can signal authority, disapproval, unfriendliness. Informal register can signal various things: genuine friendliness; a fake attempt to come across as friendly; or even deliberate disrespect if the other speaker expects formal register. Choice of register can also signal social class, in areas where this is still an issue. Higher classes tend to use a more formal register in ordinary conversation. Understanding the difference between register and grammar is important, as many speakers confuse the two: particularly in thinking that only formal register is correct grammar. This can lead to major errors of register: for instance, the highly formal â€Å"It is I† is only correct in the most formal register, and using it under any other circumstances will make a speaker sound a pompous idiot to most speakers. Characteristics/ Features of Register: 1) Language Styles â€Å"Every native speaker is normally in command of several different language styles, sometimes called registers, which are varied according to the topic under discussion, the formality of the occasion, and the medium used (speech, writing, or sign). â€Å"Adapting language to suit the topic is a fairly straightforward matter. Many activities have a specialized vocabulary. If you are playing a ball game, you need to know that ‘zero’ is a duck in cricket, love in tennis, and nil in soccer. If you have a drink with friends in a pub, you need to know greetings such as: Cheers! Here’s to your good health! â€Å"Other types of variation are less clear-cut. The same person might utter any of the following three sentences, depending on the circumstances: I should be grateful if you would make less noise. Please be quiet. Shut up! Here the utterances range from a high or formal style, down to a low or informal one–and the choice of a high or low style is partly a matter of politeness. † (Jean Aitcheson, Teach You Linguistics. Hodder, 2003) 2) Participants in an Exchange â€Å"Like variation in our manner of dress, stylistic variations in language cannot be judged as appropriate or not without reference to the participants in the interchange (i. e. , speaker and listener or reader and writer). For example, you would not speak to a 5-year-old child, an intimate friend, and a professor using the same style of speech. Using the term eleemosynary ‘charitable’ would probably be inappropriate for the child and the friend, while using number one ‘urinate’ would probably be inappropriate for the friend and the professor. † (Frank Parker and Kathryn Riley, Linguistics for Non-Linguists, 3rd ed. Ellyn & Bacon, 1999) 3) Register Features â€Å"Register features are core lexical and grammatical characteristics found to some extent in almost all texts and registers. . . . â€Å"Any linguistic feature having a functional or conventional association can be distributed in a way that distinguishes among registers. Such features come from many linguistic classes, including: phonological features (pauses, intonation patterns), tense and aspect markers, pronouns and pro-verbs, questions, nominal forms (nouns, nominalizations, gerunds), passive constructions, dependent clauses (complement clauses, relative clauses, adverbial subordination), prepositional phrases, adjectives, adverbs, measures of lexical specificity (once-occurring words, type-token ratio), lexical classes (hedges, emphatics, discourse particles, stance markers), modals, specialized verb classes (speech act verbs, mental process verbs), reduced forms (contractions, that-deletions), co-ordination, negation, and grammatical devices for structuring information (clefts, extra position). â€Å" A comprehensive linguistic analysis of a register requires consideration of a representative selection of linguistic features. Analyses of these register features are necessarily quantitative, because the associated register distinctions are based on differences in the relative distribution of linguistic features. † (Douglas Biber Dimensions of Register Variation: A Cross-Linguistic Comparison. Cambridge University Press, 1995) Sociolinguistics: (Wikipedia) â€Å"Sociolinguistics is the descriptive study of the effect of any and all aspects of society, including cultural norms, expectations, and context, on the way language is used, and the effects of language use on society. Sociolinguistics differs from sociology of language in that the focus of sociolinguistics is the effect of the society on the language, while the sociology of language focuses on language’s effect on the society. Sociolinguistics overlaps to a considerable degree with pragmatics. It is historically closely related to linguistic anthropology and the distinction between the two fields has even been questioned recently. It also studies how language varieties differ between groups separated by certain social variables, e. g. , ethnicity, religion, status, gender, level of education, age, etc. , and how creation and adherence to these rules is used to categorize individuals in social or socioeconomic classes. As the usage of a language varies from place to place; language usage also varies among social classes, and it is these sociolect that sociolinguistics studies. † Sociolinguistics is the study of how language serves and is shaped by the social nature of human beings. In its broadest conception, sociolinguistics analyzes the many and diverse ways in which language and society entwine. This vast field of inquiry requires and combines insights from a number of disciplines, including linguistics, sociology, psychology and anthropology. Sociolinguistics examines the interplay of language and society, with language as the starting point. Variation is the key concept, applied to language itself and to its use. The basic premise of sociolinguistics is that language is variable and changing. As a result, language is not homogeneous — not for the individual user and not within or among groups of speakers who use the same language. By studying written records, sociolinguists also examine how language and society have interacted in the past. For example, they have tabulated the frequency of the singular pronoun thou and its replacement you in dated hand-written or printed documents and correlated changes in frequency with changes in class structure in 16th and 17th century England. This is historical sociolinguistics: the study of relationship between changes in society and changes in language over a period of time. Branches of sociolinguistics: Sociolinguistics can be defined broadly or narrowly – Broad: branch of linguistics studying those properties of language which require reference to social, including contextual, factors in their explanation Narrow: seeks to explain patterned co-variation of language and society; seeks rules to account for that variation. Some traditions of sociolinguistic investigation: 1) Linguistic variation: (sociolinguistics proper): focuses on the linguistic variable that correlates with social differences. Unit of study is language itself considered a part of linguistics. 2) Ethnography of speaking: emphasis on various aspects of context that are involved in differing interpretations of language use. Unit of analysis is not language itself but rather the users of language: the speech community generally considered part of sociology or anthropology. 3) Language planning (also applied sociolinguistics, sociology of language): emphasis on practical aspects of this study. Much about language contact issues and language use in education.

Design an Encryption Strategy Essay

Using the table given the encryption strategy for Richmond investments would go as follows. I will be using the privacy or confidentiality objective. The basic description for the privacy or confidentiality objective is to keep information secret from all person or persons, except those who are authorized to see it have access. In other words, no one without authorization will be able to gain access to sensitive company information or client information, such as addresses, names, billing information, credit card information, and other personal information. The security option needs to be implemented on all networks in the company’s domain. The public key infrastructure is a set of hardware, software people policies and procedures needed to create, manage, distribute use store and revoke digital certificates. In this case will be using PKI cards, which will allow entrance into the facility, it will also allow entrance into specific areas of the building, allow employees to clock in and out and will allow for signing off and on of company computers. All employees will be issued a card with their name employee ID and photo on the face the card on the backside of the card will be company contact information such as departmental phone numbers, etc. the implementation of a company encryption strategy is extremely important to protect the company. The company’s clients and the overall day-to-day activities, the employees involved themselves in to keep the company running.